Genesis to Kings

Genesis to Kings
    The books of Genesis to Kings may rightly be viewed as forming the foundation upon which everything else in the Bible rests. Comprising almost one-third of the entire biblical corpus, they form a continuous narrative which describes events from the creation of the world to the 6th century BC. The events selected for inclusion within this narrative focus almost exclusively on the early history of the Hebrew people. While the contents of the books of Genesis to Kings are far from homogeneous, with different types and styles of material having been incorporated into the whole, the entire corpus displays a remarkable coherence.
    Two main plots, which are themselves closely related, link together Genesis to Kings: 1. the promise of land and 2. the promise of a royal deliverer. While the former is usually traced from the call of Abraham in Genesis 12:1–3, it has antecedents in Genesis 1–11 where the themes of expulsion and exile appear in various episodes. Although the early chapters of Genesis are integral to the development of both plots, we shall focus initially upon how the books of Genesis to Kings trace the fortunes of the Hebrew nation from the time of the patriarch Abraham to the release of the Judaean king Jehoiachin from prison in Babylon in 561 BC.

The Promise of Nationhood
    In Genesis Abraham is promised by Yahweh, the Lord, that his descendants will become a great nation in the land of Canaan (e.g. Gen. 12:2; 15:1–21). This promise is later renewed to Abraham’s son, Isaac, and his son, Jacob (whose name is changed to Israel). However, before it can be fulfilled, Jacob’s family must migrate to Egypt, from where, after a period of oppression, they are miraculously delivered by God, under the leadership of Moses (Exod. 3–15). Following their Exodus from captivity in Egypt, the Israelites are invited by the Lord to enter into a covenant relationship with him (Exod. 19–24). At the heart of this agreement is the requirement that they should acknowledge, through love and obedience, the sole lordship of Yahweh as their God.
    The formal establishment of this covenant between Yahweh and the Israelites leads to the construction of a ‘royal’ tent or tabernacle, which becomes the locus of God’s presence among his people (Exod. 25–31; 35–40). However, it has significant ramifications for the Israelites. New structures and customs have to be set in place in order for the people to live in safety close to Yahweh. These are described in considerable detail throughout the book of Leviticus. Holiness is particularly important; the Israelites must sanctify themselves and maintain an appropriate state of holiness in order to remain in the presence of the Holy One.
    While the books of Exodus and Leviticus focus on the transformation of Israel into a ‘holy nation’, this stands in tension with the people’s failure to live up to their covenant obligations. Whereas the record of Israel’s time at Mt Sinai highlights the immense privilege which Yahweh bestowed upon the Israelites by choosing them to be his ‘treasured possession’ out of all the nations (Exod. 19:5), the story of the Israelites’ journey from Egypt to the promised land contains a long catalogue of failures. Indeed, the book of Numbers graphically reveals that of all the adult Israelites who experienced God’s deliverance from slavery in Egypt and witnessed the spectacular theophany at Mt Sinai, only Joshua and Caleb survive to enter the promised land (cf. Num. 26:63–65). Even Moses, the faithful servant of the Lord, is condemned to die outside the land, having struggled to lead the people for forty years in the wilderness.
    After the untimely death of those who entered into the covenant relationship at Mt Sinai, Moses invites the next generation of Israelites to make a similar commitment to Yahweh. The book of Deuteronomy describes in detail the renewing of the covenant, this time ‘in the desert east of the Jordan’ (Deut. 1:1). Here the Israelites stand on the threshold of the land God promised centuries earlier to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob.
    In Deuteronomy the obligations of the covenant are set out by Moses in several lengthy speeches which abound in exhortations challenging the people to be faithful to Yahweh. When he has finished speaking, Moses records this ‘law’ – the Hebrew term tora® is best translated ‘instruction’ or ‘teaching’ – in a book and gives it to the priests and elders of Israel (cf. Deut. 31:9, 24). Moses commands them to read the book to the people regularly so that future generations will ‘learn to fear the LORD’ (Deut. 31:13).
    The concluding sections of Deuteronomy, however, clearly predict, in a variety of ways, further acts of disobedience; see for example the long list of curses (Deut. 28:15–68; cf. 27:15–26) and the contents of the ‘Song of Moses’ (Deut. 32:1–43).
    Although the final chapter of Deuteronomy concludes with the burial of Moses, his birth and death framing the books of Exodus to Deuteronomy, further developments are expected; the Israelites have yet to occupy the land of Canaan, an event anticipated by much of the material in Genesis to Deuteronomy. In the light of this, it is apparent that the opening verses of Joshua have been deliberately composed to continue the story. The divine commissioning of Joshua as Moses’ successor echoes Deuteronomy 31:1–8 (cf. Josh. 1:1–5), and Joshua’s success as a leader will depend upon his obedience to the ‘Book of the Law’ (Josh. 1:7–8)
    While the book of Joshua describes how the Israelites succeed in taking possession of much of the land of Canaan, the next book, Judges, provides a contrasting sequel. No longer does the occupation of the land proceed smoothly. On the contrary the Israelites find themselves losing ground to their enemies. Whereas their success under Joshua was due to their obeying the Lord, failure thereafter is the result of disobedience. Even the divinely appointed and spirit-empowered ‘judges’ are increasingly tainted by the sin of the people as a whole.
    The pattern of events described in Judges continues into the opening chapters of Samuel, climaxing in the capture of the ark of the covenant by the Philistines. This would have symbolized the total defeat of Yahweh himself but for the fact that he permitted it to happen. When the ark of the covenant is brought as a trophy of victory into the temple of Dagon in Ashdod, Yahweh’s power is demonstrated through the falling over of Dagon’s stone image (1 Sam. 5:1–5).
    Subsequent developments lead to a new phase in God’s dealings with the Israelites, involving the creation of a monarchy. While most of 1 Samuel focuses on the establishing of Saul as the first king of Israel, he is overshadowed by the figure of David, the one anointed by the prophet Samuel to replace Saul as king.
    2 Samuel records how, after Saul’s death in battle, David becomes king over all Israel and establishes Jerusalem as his capital. To confirm his divine appointment as monarch, David transports the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem. Soon afterwards, when he expresses a desire to construct for Yahweh a temple in Jerusalem, the Lord intervenes and delays the project. However, in response to David’s desire to build a ‘house’ or temple for God, the Lord promises that David’s ‘house’ or dynasty will be established for ever. The importance of David is underlined by the fact that all of 2 Samuel is devoted to describing his period as king.
    Attention shifts in the opening chapters of 1 Kings to Solomon, who succeeds to his father David’s throne. Through the divine gift of wisdom Solomon extends the boundaries of the kingdom and brings peace, prosperity and justice to the Israelites. He then constructs a splendid temple to Yahweh in Jerusalem. As a result, the impression is conveyed that the promise of nationhood made centuries earlier by God to Abraham has come at last to fulfilment.
    Yet the account of Solomon’s life concludes on a dark note by highlighting how his many wives lead him into idolatry. Consequently, after his death, God divides the kingdom between Solomon’s son Rehoboam and one of Solomon’s officials, Jeroboam. While Rehoboam retains control of the region around Jerusalem, known as ‘Judah’, Jeroboam becomes king of the much larger portion of Solomon’s kingdom designated ‘Israel’.
    The fortunes of these two kingdoms, and in particular the activities of their kings, are recorded in the rest of 1 and 2 Kings. Whereas the northern kingdom of Israel is ruled by a series of short dynasties, control of the southern kingdom remains in the hands of David’s descendants. Although both kingdoms are portrayed as failing to remain loyal to Yahweh, the apostasy of Israel is much greater, resulting in its downfall at the hands of the Assyrians by 721 BC. While Judah survives on this occasion, a similar fate befalls it just over a century later when the Babylonians invade the country, destroy the temple, and carry away many of the population into exile. Once again, the blame is placed upon the failure of the monarchy and people to remain loyal to Yahweh.
    Although the narrative in Genesis to Kings ends with the subjugation of Judah, there are indications that the story is not finished. The concluding chapters of Deuteronomy anticipate God’s judgment coming upon the Israelites, climaxing in their exile from the land. However, Deuteronomy 30:1–10 also describes a subsequent return to the land. This theme is echoed later by Solomon in his prayer at the dedication of the temple (1 Kgs. 8:46–51). It is noteworthy that the final episode in Kings focuses on the release of Jehoiachin from prison in Babylon and his kind treatment by the Babylonian king, Evil-Merodach. Does this offer a glimmer of hope for the future?

The Promise of a Royal Deliverer
    We have observed that the books of Genesis to Kings are bound together by God’s promise to Abraham that his descendants will become a great nation, occupying the land of Canaan. This, however, is only one part of what Yahweh promises Abraham, and possibly not the most important. Alongside the promise of nationhood is the promise that Abraham will be a source of blessing to the nations of the earth. Not only does this promise play a very significant role within the Abraham narrative and subsequent narratives; it also links this material with the opening chapters of Genesis.
    The divine promise of blessing through Abraham, introduced in Genesis 12:1–3, is clearly set against the background of Genesis 1–11. These chapters open with the creation of the earth and humanity. All living creatures are blessed by God (Gen. 1:22, 28) and everything is described as ‘very good’ (Gen. 1:31). However, Genesis 3 concludes with the expulsion of the human couple from the Garden of Eden, Yahweh having punished them for disobeying his instructions. Various curses are listed in Genesis 3:14–19, which have the effect of reversing, in part at least, the blessings previously announced by God. As the following chapters reveal, humanity, alienated from God, struggles to survive in a world that is dominated by evil. Eventually the growth of human wickedness is so great that God intervenes, destroying through a flood all human beings apart from Noah and his closest relatives. In spite of this, however, the sinful nature of humanity remains essentially unchanged (Gen. 8:21). People continue to challenge and reject God’s authority over them.
    While the events of Genesis 3–11 highlight the disastrous consequences of living under God’s curse or disfavour, the call of Abraham offers hope. Yahweh promises to bless all those who bless Abraham (Gen. 12:3). Much later, in response to Abraham’s obedience, this promise is confirmed by a divine oath which guarantees that God’s blessing will come to ‘all the families of the earth’ through one of Abraham’s descendants (Gen. 22:16–18).
    This guarantee of future blessing is linked to a unique line of ‘seed’, which begins with Seth (cf. Gen. 4:25) and is traced downwards through two linear genealogies to Abraham (Gen. 5:1–32; 11:10–26). (Significantly, the Lord has already announced that this ‘seed’ will overcome the ‘serpent’ [Gen. 3:15]). From Abraham it proceeds through Isaac to Jacob/Israel and then Joseph. In spite of his brothers’ actions against him, Joseph is protected by God and, from being a prisoner in an Egyptian jail, is dramatically exalted to become prime minister of Egypt. In this capacity he is a source of blessing to many nations during a seven-year famine.
    Although Genesis undoubtedly makes much of Joseph’s place within the family line descended from Abraham, attention is drawn also to Judah, especially in Genesis 38. Of note here is Tamar’s determination to continue the line of ‘seed’ (38:6–26) and the remarkable account of the birth of twin boys in which the younger breaks out ahead of the older (38:27–30). The reader is clearly meant to reflect upon the significance of this event in the light of other birth stories in Genesis. Later, Jacob’s blessing of Judah highlights the importance of his descendants, suggesting that from them shall come a royal line (49:8–12).
    While there are indications that Judah’s descendants may include a future royal dynasty, the line of ‘seed’ is initially traced from Joseph to his younger son Ephraim (cf. Gen. 48:1–22). Jacob’s blessing of Ephraim ahead of his older brother Manasseh is reminiscent of Jacob’s own experience in relation to his older twin brother Esau. After the Israelites’ Exodus from Egypt under Moses, Joshua from the tribe of Ephraim successfully leads the people into the promised land, establishing a central sanctuary at Shiloh in the territory allocated to the Ephraimites (Josh. 18:1).
    Thereafter, however, the Ephraimites gradually lose control of the nation as the people forsake Yahweh for other gods. Through Samuel God moves to establish a monarchy in Israel, and this leads, after Saul’s failure as king, to the creation of a Davidic dynasty from the tribe of Judah. Interestingly, the divine rejection of Ephraim coincides with the departure of the ark of the covenant from Shiloh and the death of the high priest Eli and his sons (cf. Ps. 78:56–72).
    Whereas Joshua had established Shiloh as the location for Israel’s central sanctuary, David selects Jerusalem and proceeds to transport the ark of the covenant there. Although he prepares for the building of a temple in Jerusalem, the actual task of construction is left to his son Solomon. These activities confirm God’s choice of David and his descendants as the lineage through whom God’s blessing will come to all the families of the earth. However, although much of Solomon’s reign is portrayed positively (through wisdom he brings blessing to the Israelites and is admired by foreigners) his many wives eventually lead him into idolatry. As a result, God divides the kingdom between Solomon’s son, Rehoboam and Jeroboam, an Ephraimite.
    Although the appointment of Jeroboam as king may have been interpreted by some as heralding the restoration of the line of Joseph, the book of Kings continues to focus upon the fulfilment of God’s promises to David. While different dynasties come and go in the northern kingdom of Israel, David’s descendants remain upon the throne in Jerusalem. Nevertheless, the unrighteous activities of some of David’s descendants place the nation of Judah in jeopardy, resulting in its punishment at the hands of the Babylonians.
    With the destruction of the temple and the apparent demise of the Davidic dynasty, the book of Kings comes to its conclusion. In contrast to the promise of nationhood, God’s promise to bless the nations of the earth through a royal descendant of Abraham has remained unfulfilled. However, Jehoiachin’s release from prison in Babylon possibly suggests that the story is not finished.

The Literary Unity of Genesis to Kings
    The preceding survey provides grounds for believing that the books of Genesis to Kings form a unified literary composition. To say this is not to claim that their style is uniform throughout; the individual books have their own distinctive features, and even within each diverse material may be found. To the reader this presents a challenge, for it is easy to lose sight of the big picture. Yet throughout Genesis to Kings a rich variety of components has been worked together to produce a remarkable literary collage.
    These observations on the literary unity of Genesis to Kings have important implications for our understanding of this material, and this may be contrasted briefly with other approaches. Within Judaism, it has been traditional to view the books as forming two distinctive blocks: the Torah (Genesis to Deuteronomy) and the Former Prophets (Joshua to Kings). However, because greater authority was given to the first of these, a division was created between Deuteronomy and Joshua. With the development of critical approaches to the OT scholars began to question seriously the value of treating Genesis to Deuteronomy as a unity. Observing that Deuteronomy had no account of the Israelites taking possession of the promised land, they soon included the book of Joshua in discussions regarding the composition of the Pentateuch. This marked an important shift, from thinking of a Pentateuch to thinking of a Hexateuch. A further development was the introduction by Martin Noth of the concept of a Deuteronom(ist)ic Historian, who composed the books of Deuteronomy to Kings in the exilic period. Focusing on the unity of these books, Noth dismissed the concept of a Pentateuch, favouring instead that of a Tetrateuch. While Noth’s proposals have been very influential, the process by which the books of Genesis to Kings were composed continues to be the subject of intense debate among scholars, and new theories regarding their composition continue to be offered. This should not distract us, however, from considering how all these books, viewed as a unified narrative, contribute to a Christian understanding of biblical theology.
    Although absolute certainty is impossible, it seems likely that the books of Genesis to Kings were given their present shape shortly after 561 BC, the date of Jehoiachin’s release from prison (2 Kgs. 25:27). While the process by which these books were composed remains obscure, they were probably written to give hope to those affected by the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple, the demise of the Davidic dynasty, the deportation of many leading Judaean citizens to Babylon and the flight of others to Egypt.
    The books of Genesis to Kings not only offer an explanation for these traumatic events by focusing on the nation’s failure to be faithful to Yahweh, but also preserve the hope that God will one day raise up a descendant of David through whom he will bless all the nations of the earth. Similar optimism is found in other writings, some of which originate prior to the exile (e.g. Is. 9:1–7; 11:1–5; Jer. 23:5–6; 30:8–9; Ezek. 17:22–24; 34:23–24; 37:24; Amos 9:11–12).
    Thus, although the books of Genesis to Kings narrate the past history of the Hebrew people, they are firmly orientated towards the future. By tracing the line of ‘seed’ from Seth to Jehoiachin, the narrative highlights God’s ongoing faithfulness to his promises in spite of many obstacles to their fulfilment. Moreover, a picture is gradually drawn of the one who is yet to come, for the reader is given to expect that he will resemble and excel the prominent figures in Genesis to Kings. Like Abraham, he will trust and obey God. Like Joseph, he will save ‘many lives’ (Gen. 50:20). Like Joshua, he will do everything written in the ‘Book of the Law’. Like David, he will be divinely exalted from humble circumstances. Like Solomon, he will rule with great wisdom.
    In the light of this expectation, it is easy to understand how Jesus is portrayed in the NT as the one who fulfils the Law and the Prophets (e.g. Matt. 5:17; Luke 24:27, 44; John 1:45; Acts 26:22–23; 28:23). He is the promised ‘seed’ of Abraham and of David (e.g., Acts 3:25–26; Rom. 1:2; Gal. 3:16). Although Genesis to Kings contain other themes of significance for biblical theology, there is an urgent need to recognize afresh that these books point, above all else, to the coming of one through whom the nations of the earth will be blessed.

Conclusion
    Thus far, our main purpose has been to show that the narrative in Genesis to Kings is bound together by two interrelated plots which centre around the divine promises of nationhood and a royal deliverer. However, by the end of Kings the latter promise is at best only partially fulfilled, thus creating the expectation that its fulfilment still lies in the future.
    In line with this expectation, it is apparent that other elements in Genesis to Kings have a paradigmatic function, pointing forward to and/or anticipating events that have yet to take place. Probably the most important of these elements is the account of the deliverance of the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and their taking possession of the promised land. These events, viewed in the light of the expulsion of Adam and Eve from the garden of Eden, provide a preview of the greater deliverance which God has planned for the whole earth. Thus, although the Israelites enter into a special covenant relationship with the Lord at Mt Sinai and, consequently, are distinguished from all other nations by having God come and dwell in their midst, they enjoy at most only a partial restoration of the idyllic conditions which existed on earth prior to the rebellion of Adam and Eve. While the building of the tabernacle enables the Lord to live among the Israelites, direct access to him is still very restricted, and numerous provisions must be made in order for the people to atone for their ongoing sins. Moreover, as the books of Genesis to Kings bear witness, these arrangements by themselves provide no permanent solution to the fractured relationship between God and humanity. They do, however, provide an important guide to the means by which a lasting solution will be achieved.
    In the light of the preceding observations, the importance of the books of Genesis to Kings for biblical theology is evident. As numerous articles elsewhere in this dictionary demonstrate more fully, these books not only introduce a rich variety of theological ideas, but also provide the foundation upon which everything else rests.

Bibliography
    T. D. Alexander, From Paradise to the Promised Land: an Introduction to the Main Themes of the Pentateuch (Carlisle and Grand Rapids, 1995, 1998); idem, ‘Royal expectations in Genesis to Kings: their importance for biblical theology’, TynB 49, 1998, pp. 191–212; D. N. Freedman, ‘The earliest Bible’, in M. P. O’Connor and D. N. Freedman (eds.), Background for the Bible (Winona Lake, 1987); J. G. McConville, Grace in the End: A Study in Deuteronomic Theology (Carlisle and Grand Rapids, 1993); M. Noth, The Deuteronomistic History (ET, Sheffield, 1981); R. N. Whybray, The Making of the Pentateuch: A Methodological Study (Sheffield, 1987).
T. D. ALEXANDER